ABSTRACT

Background

Simulated computed tomography (CT) images allow for knowledge of the underlying ground truth and for easy variation of imaging conditions, making them ideal for testing and optimization of new applications or algorithms. However, simulating all processes that affect CT images can result in simulations that are demanding in terms of processing time and computer memory. Therefore, it is of interest to determine how much the simulation can be simplified while still achieving realistic results.

Purpose

To develop a scanner-specific CT simulation using physics-based simulations for the position-dependent effects and shift-invariant image corruption methods for the detector effects. And to investigate the impact on image realism of introducing simplifications in the simulation process that lead to faster and less memory-demanding simulations.

Methods

To make the simulator realistic and scanner-specific, the spatial resolution and noise characteristics, and the exposure-to-detector output relationship of a clinical CT system were determined. The simulator includes a finite focal spot size, raytracing of the digital phantom, gantry rotation during projection acquisition, and finite detector element size. Previously published spectral models were used to model the spectrum for the given tube voltage. The integrated energy at each element of the detector was calculated using the Beer–Lambert law. The resulting angular projections were subsequently corrupted by the detector modulation transfer function (MTF), and by addition of noise according to the noise power spectrum (NPS) and signal mean-variance relationship, which were measured for different scanner settings. The simulated sinograms were reconstructed on the clinical CT system and compared to real CT images in terms of CT numbers, noise magnitude using the standard deviation, noise frequency content using the NPS, and spatial resolution using the MTF throughout the field of view (FOV). The CT numbers were validated using a multi-energy CT phantom, the noise magnitude and frequency were validated with a water phantom, and the spatial resolution was validated with a tungsten wire. These metrics were compared at multiple scanner settings, and locations in the FOV. Once validated, the simulation was simplified by reducing the level of subsampling of the focal spot area, rotation and of detector pixel size, and the changes in MTFs were analyzed.

Results

The average relative errors for spatial resolution within and across image slices, noise magnitude, and noise frequency content within and across slices were 3.4%, 3.3%, 4.9%, 3.9%, and 6.2%, respectively. The average absolute difference in CT numbers was 10.2 HU and the maximum was 22.5 HU. The simulation simplification showed that all subsampling can be avoided, except for angular, while the error in frequency at 10% MTF would be maximum 16.3%.

Conclusion

The simulation of a scanner-specific CT allows for the generation of realistic CT images by combining physics-based simulations for the position-dependent effects and image-corruption methods for the shift-invariant ones. Together with the available ground truth of the digital phantom, it results in a useful tool to perform quantitative analysis of reconstruction or post-processing algorithms. Some simulation simplifications allow for reduced time and computer power requirements with minimal loss of realism.